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Range of Bomber Aircraft 1941
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Range of Bomber Aircraft 1941
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World War II saw the use of unprecedented airpower and the advent of strategic bombing. This aerial bombardment of heavily populated and industrialized areas caused chaos on the ground, as well as weakening resources for, and strength on, the battlefield. Bombers, therefore, were important tools of war. The Germans used... More
Range of the Buffalo 1660–1889
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Range of the Buffalo 1660–1889
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In 1600, the North American bison population (called ‘buffalo’ by early American settlers) was c. 25–30 million. The first European impact was indirect: the introduction of the horse to the Native Americans. This improved their hunting efficiency, and encouraged tribes to the east of the plains to engage in hunting.... More
Rappahannock Station 7 November 1863
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Rappahannock Station 7 November 1863
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The Second Battle of Rappahannock Station took place on 7 November 1863, on the Orange and Alexandra Railroad. While the Union Major General William French crossed the river at Kelly’s Ford, Union Major General John Sedgwick’s army advanced towards Rappahannock Station, where Confederates, under Major General Jubal Early, were mobilized.... More
Rashtrakuta, Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara state formation, c. 750–950
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Rashtrakuta, Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara state formation, c. 750–950
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After the collapse of the Harsha-Vardhana dynasty in c. 750, the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties vied for domination of the Gangas (Ganges) valley and the sacred city of Kanauj. India rapidly decentralized, forming into regional kingdoms, with feudal structures. The north, briefly a lawless and leaderless area, became unified... More
Ratification of the Federal Constitution 1787–90
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Ratification of the Federal Constitution 1787–90
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Between 1787–1788, 16,000 elected delegates debated whether to provide ratification of the newly proposed Constitution. Outside this private arena, the public were being bombarded with leaflets, pamphlets and broadsides outlining the merits and demerits of the new constitution. The Federalists, who were pro more centralized government control and wanted the... More
Ration Strengths November 1918
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Ration Strengths November 1918
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An army’s ‘ration strength’ means all those within the armed forces partaking of rations. This includes non-combatants and the transport, medical and catering corps. The figures for November 1918 reveal an Allied superiority on the western front, nearing 2:1, meaning that for every two Allies, there was one German. However,... More
Recruitment and Fundraising for St Louis’s Crusade 1248–54
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Recruitment and Fundraising for St Louis’s Crusade 1248–54
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In 1245, Pope Innocent IV convened a great ecclesiastical council at Lyons, at which Louis IX of France announced he would lead a crusade. The pope lent his support and authorized a levy on clerical revenues to help with finance. Louis proved adept at finding additional revenues. After the Albigensian... More
Recruitment for the First Crusade 1095–96
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Recruitment for the First Crusade 1095–96
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The call for the First Crusade was made at Clermont in France’s heartland by Pope Urban II, a French nobleman by birth. In a God-fearing age his message was compelling; liberate Jerusalem and attain salvation. Urban had other pragmatic motives, since Muslims still controlled most of Spain, and threatened Byzantium... More
Red River War 1874–75
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Red River War 1874–75
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The Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867) allocated Cheyenne, Kiowa, Comanche and Arapaho reservations east of the Texas Panhandle, but the industrial-scale extermination of bison by commercial hunters soon threatened them with starvation. Incited by a spiritual leader who claimed he could make them bullet-proof and invisible, some 300 Indians attacked the... More
Reformation in Europe 1520–1600
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Reformation in Europe 1520–1600
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Indugences were payments to the Catholic Church that purchased a penance-free absolution for certain sins. The German Dominican Friar Johann Tetzel was an indulgence-seller supreme: his marketing jingle ‘when a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs’. The priest and theologist Martin Luther was outraged: his 95... More
Religious Affiliations in Europe at the time of the Treaties of Utrecht 1713–14
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Religious Affiliations in Europe at the time of the Treaties of Utrecht 1713–14
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The War of the Spanish Succession marked the culmination – and conclusion – of two centuries of conflicts driven by religious differences, which began with the Protestant Reformation. The war began as a consequence of the French king Louis XIV’s attempts to place his grandson on the Spanish throne, which... More
Remilitarization of the Rhineland 1936
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Remilitarization of the Rhineland 1936
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Hitler’s order to send German troops into the Rhineland demilitarized zone on 7 March 1936 was a fundamental breach of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which had been signed in an attempt to bring peace to Europe and hold Germany accountable for its role in World War I. It also... More