After the English victory in the First Anglo-Dutch war (1652–54), the Dutch ‘New Netherland’ colony came into English possession in 1664, when Charles II appointed his brother James, Duke of York, to take the Dutch governor’s surrender. When James II ascended to the English throne in 1688, the Province of... More
The German Confederation was formed following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, originally comprising 34 states of the former Holy Roman Empire, with a further five joining in 1820. After the turmoil of the French Revolution and the defeat of Napoleon, aristocratic leaders of the various states of Germany saw... More
Ireland was known to the Greeks, at least from the voyages to the British Isles of Pytheas in the 4th century BCE. Its latinized name, Hibernia, derives from Celtic Iweriu, or ‘fertile land’. Pomponius Mela, writing in 43 CE, said it was ‘so luxuriant in grass – abundant and sweet... More
After the decline of the Gupta Empire, which had united ancient India and reached its zenith in c. 320-550 CE, the country broke up into several states, ruled by different kings. Between c. 550–750 CE, the Pushyabhuti dynasty ruled much of northwestern India, reaching its apogee under Harsha-Vardhana, the grandson... More
Queen Anne’s War, a British victory, was fought between Great Britain and France, joined by its Spanish allies. Each side allied themselves to Indian nations, with the British supported by the Iroquois and the French-Spanish, the Abenakis. This war was contemporaneous with the War of the Spanish Succession in Europe,... More
The history of the United States has tended to encourage a degree of racial and ethnic clustering. The mass importation of African slave labour still leaves the imprint of the plantations on the demography of the South. The mass deportation of Native Americans from their homelands to reservations is similarly... More
After emancipation in 1865, southern states introduced laws (Black Codes), restricting black civil rights. These racially divisive laws, (known as ‘Jim Crow’) disenfranchised and subordinated blacks. There was a surge in violent white supremacist movements, such as the Ku Klux Klan. Until the 1958–68 Civil Rights movement, characterized by non-violent... More
While underlying causes were competition for jobs and housing, inflamed by prejudice, the trigger for race riots was often a crime ascribed (usually falsely) to the targeted community. The victims were not always African Americans. In New Orleans (1866), eleven Italian migrants were lynched and San Francisco’s Chinese neighbourhoods were... More
The American and French Revolutions were important catalysts in late 18th century Ireland. The Anglo-Protestant Ascendancy which ruled in Ireland effectively excluded both Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants from representation. The Defenders, a rural Catholic insurgent movement was active from the 1780s, but the formation (1791) of the Society of United... More
By 1850, 9,021 miles (14,500 km) of railroad had been constructed in the northeast, with some lines laid towards the west. The federal government wanted to establish further railroads across the west, connecting the seaports of the Atlantic with the middle west and the Pacific seaboard. During the 1850s there... More
Work on America’s first railroads began in the mid-1820s, the first of these being small private railroads for industrial use. By 1830–31 four railroad companies had opened lines to provide transport services connecting various cities. Much of the existing railroad technology and the incentive behind investment in the railroads came... More
In 1862 Congress passed the Pacific Railway Act, approving government funding for construction of a transcontinental railroad. The railroad would help improve trade links, and provide fast and efficient transportation to the newly settled Pacific coast. It would also open the US heartland for settlement. On 10 May 1869, three... More