The period between Nelson Mandela’s release from 27 years in prison in 1990 and South Africa’s first post-apartheid elections in 1994 was extremely fraught. Afrikaner hard-liners were determined to derail the process of apartheid repeal, but there was also dissension amongst the various representatives of the black majority. In particular... More
In the late 10th century, the Abbasid Caliphate had split into many independent states and was weakened by internal fighting. The Shia Fatimids, who broke from the Abbasids in 909, took control of Egypt c. 969 and occupied the holy cities of Medina and Mecca. In 945, the Iranian Buyids... More
On 21 August 1991 Ukraine withdrew from the Soviet Union; five months later, on 1 December, a referendum on the Act of Declaration of Independence was held and was passed by an overwhelming majority of 92.3%. The first decades of independence proved to be fraught with political instability; the majority... More
After World War II, Europe faced a refugee crisis. The International Refugee Organization was formed in 1946 to manage these displaced persons. The Cold War was just beginning and heightened tension between the Soviet Union and NATO members made discussions about repatriation difficult. Many refugees were Polish, Ukrainian, Yugoslav and... More
By 1000, the Abbasid Caliphate existed in name only, without temporal power beyond its court in Baghdad. The surrounding region was under the rule of the Buwayhids, a dynasty from Daylam on the shores of the Caspian, who had conquered Fars in 934, and the rest of Iraq rapidly thereafter.... More
The US soldier John Wesley Powell (1834–1902) compiled the first extensive classification of Native American languages in his 1891 work based upon an assessment of their lexical similarities. Following a lengthy process of data collection and analysis, Powell came to distinguish 58 distinct linguistic stocks or families across North America,... More
The Act of Uniformity made it law for Cranmer’s Protestant Book of Common Prayer, published in 1549, to be used in all English churches. Some churches were happy to use the new prayer book, which decreed that all services be conducted in English, while others, while prepared to adhere to... More
Jaichand, the last king of the Ghadavala dynasty, like King Harold, fell to an arrow through the eye at the battle of Chandwar (1193) near his capital, Kanauj. Unlike Harold, he was then trampled by elephants, so his corpse could only be identified by its gold-capped teeth. This victory, by... More
Julius Caesar discerned three broad divisions amongst the inhabitants of Gaul. The Belgae of the north were similar to, but wilder than, the Celtae of the centre, while the Aquitani tribes of the Southwest were entirely distinct in appearance and customs. Prior to Caesar’s conquest, most of the southern littoral... More
The Rome foundation legend of Romulus and Remus maintains the brothers were the abandoned grandsons of Numitor, a king of Alba Longa (the legendary kings of Latium). The site reputedly chosen by Romulus at the foot of the Palatine Hill was located at a place where the River Tiber could... More
In c. 1750, over half of the population of the thirteen colonies was still of English descent, but significant minorities were beginning to establish themselves. The largest of these was African, predominantly slaves, and overwhelmingly concentrated in the plantations of Virginia and the southern colonies. The Scots-Irish, mainly Presbyterians from... More
In 2000, Catholics were the largest Christian group globally. Catholicism, which still predominates in southern and central Europe, is particularly evident in former Spanish, French and Portuguese colonies, such as Latin America, Mexico and the Philippines. Canada and Australia have large Catholic communities, reflecting immigration from the Catholic Old World,... More