The capture of the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum in 16 CE served as a springboard for the planned subjugation of the German tribes. The first offensive between 11 and 9 BCE was successful, reaching the Elbe river. One consequence of this campaign was the exile to Rome of... More
In three consective of campaigning from 12 BCE, the Roman general Drusus vanquished a series of Germanic tribes – the Bructeri, Cherusci then Chatti – reaching as far as the Elbe, before dying after a fall from his horse. A new German offensive under Tiberius, Augustus’s son, commenced in 4... More
In 1944, allied pilots took the first aerial shots of the Auschwitz concentration camp complex near the Polish villages of Oświęcim and Brzezinski. Auschwitz I housed workshops and armaments factories, Auschwitz III was a subcamp, while Auschwitz II was the main extermination centre. From their aircraft, the pilots saw gas... More
Established by Germany’s SS authorities, Auschwitz-Birkenau II formed part of a forced labour and extermination camp complex on the Polish-German border. Auschwitz-Birkenau II was the main extermination centre and divided into ten barbed wired sections patrolled by guards and dog handlers. After the mass transport trains arrived, prisoners’ possessions were... More
In 1835, Britain declared Australia terra nullius, ‘nobody’s land’, thus free for colonization without having to bother with irksome negotiation or treaties with its aboriginal inhabitants. The colonial government, established to control penal colonies, was autocratic, and the vast wilderness attracted ‘squatters’, free settlers, as well as freed and escaped... More
William Bligh, infamous for the mutiny on the Bounty, was appointed fourth Governor of New South Wales (1806): his singular management skills resulted in the only successful armed rebellion in Australian history, and his imprisonment by his own military. Bligh’s successor Lachlan Macquarie (governor 1810–21) restored order, and substantially achieved... More
Van Diemen’s Land became the penal colony of last resort in Australia, where the most hardened criminals and ex-convicts who re-offended were exiled. It also attracted wealthy free settlers, who clustered in the northwest, attracted by the fine sheep pasture and inexhaustible supply of free convict labour. The aboriginal population... More
Within days of Victoria’s proclamation as a separate colony on 1 July 1851, gold was discovered at Ballarat. With the subsequent rushes and economic boom, its population had outstripped that of the mother colony of New South Wales by the end of the decade. The previous year, the Australian Colonies... More
In 1854, the Eureka Rebellion by gold prospectors in Victoria protesting against extortionate taxes and mining licence fees, was ruthlessly suppressed by British troops. However, the British government was shaken from its complacency and reluctantly recognized the need for devolved powers. The Colony of Victoria Act (1855) granted representative government,... More
In 1860–61, the Burke and Wills expedition completed the first crossing of the Australian continent, from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Both the expedition leaders perished on the return trip, emphasizing the hostility of the interior, but the Northern Territory was now on the map, and incorporated into South... More
The 1860s and 1870s were the heyday of the Australian bushrangers, from Captain Thunderbolt to Ned Kelly. They embodied a rambunctious anti-authoritarianism that would be expressed lawfully in the power of the labour unions during the prosperity of the Great Boom. Fed by exports of wool, wheat and minerals to... More
The immediate precipitant of World War I was Austria-Hungary’s July ultimatum to Serbia, demanding an investigation of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. When Serbia refused to accede to the ultimatum in full, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July, beginning the shelling of Belgrade the following day. Although heavily committed... More