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Papal States After Innocent III to 1278
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Papal States After Innocent III to 1278
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By his death in 1216, Pope Innocent III had increased papal power and extended the influence of the papacy over European monarchs. It was his belief that the Papal States were under threat from the expansionist plans of the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI, who had already claimed the kingdom... More
Papal States in the 16th Century
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Papal States in the 16th Century
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During the Renaissance, the Papal States expanded, especially under Pope Alexander VI and Pope Julius II. By the time of the Reformation from 1517, followed by the Counter-Reformation from 1545, the Papal States claimed, or controlled, Parma, Modena, Bologna, Romagne and Perouse, in addition to Rome. The pope was not... More
Paris 1190
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Paris 1190
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Philip II (r. 1180–1223) began the conversion of Paris into a capital befitting the growing power of France. The city walls and fortress of the Louvre were both commenced in 1190. Completed in 1220, the walls encompassed ten gates and 75 watchtowers: the security they afforded encouraged the rapid commercial... More
Paris c. 1700
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Paris c. 1700
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In 1700, Paris was the second largest city in Europe, with London the first. In 1701 it expanded into twelve suburbs (faubourgs), which formed a clockwise spiral within and beyond the old city wall, which Louis XIV (1638–1715) had pulled down and replaced with boulevards. Despite moving his court to... More
Paris in 1789
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Paris in 1789
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By 1789, Paris was the largest city in France and, on the eve of the Revolution of 1789, had a population of 600,000–650,000. Many had migrated from the Paris basin and from other parts of northern France. 1789 Paris remained largely unchanged since 1701, when Louis XIV relocated the royal... More
Parliamentary Representation after 1832
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Parliamentary Representation after 1832
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The British electoral system in the early 1830s was outdated, unrepresentative and highly prone to corruption and patronage. The electorate was a small percentage of the population, and the assortment of boroughs and counties varied massively in the size of the electorate they contained. Each county elected two members until... More
Parliamentary Representation Before 1832
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Parliamentary Representation Before 1832
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Dunwich in Suffolk was a thriving medieval town until it was inundated by the sea in the 14th century. But it still returned two MPs to the pre-Reform parliament, as did the seven electors of Old Sarum and Gatton respectively. Before ennoblement, the Duke of Wellington served as MP for... More
Parthian Wars 114–117 CE
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Parthian Wars 114–117 CE
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Rome had unfinished business with Parthia since 53 BCE, when their archers and cavalry annihilated the Roman army of Crassus at Carrhae. The Roman emperor Trajan, using as a pretext the installation of a nephew of the Parthian ruler as king of Armenia, launched a full-scale invasion. He first annexed... More
Partitions of Poland – Russia Moves Westwards 1772–95
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Partitions of Poland – Russia Moves Westwards 1772–95
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In the period 1772–95, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was annexed by Russia, Prussia and Austria during three separate partition agreements. Poland itself was politically compromised with many of its diplomats controlled through Russian bribes. It was also militarily and economically weakened by civil war and became gradually more so with each... More
Passchendaele July–November 1917
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Passchendaele July–November 1917
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1917 began ominously for the Allies. The February Revolution in Russia threatened the collapse of the eastern front, and the German resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare was severely degrading Allied supply lines on the western front. Initiated by General Haig, the Battle of Passchendaele had two primary objectives: to close... More
Patrons and Artists in Renaissance Italy 1260–1550
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Patrons and Artists in Renaissance Italy 1260–1550
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During the Renaissance, most art was commissioned and paid for by wealthy individuals, civic institutions, the Church, or rulers. Renaissance artists were constrained by the desires and directives of their patrons, and their works was subject to contracts, which stipulated timescales, costs, materials and so on. For the patrons commissioning... More
Peasant Discontent 1827–60
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Peasant Discontent 1827–60
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Increasingly, Russia’s rulers realized that the condition of serfdom needed to be addressed. Catherine the Great introduced prosecution for mistreatment of serfs by landowners, in the wake of the Pugachev revolt (1773–75). Paul I limited barshchina (service owed to the landowner) to three days a week, and Alexander I introduced... More