After crossing the Meuse, the Germans began their advance towards the Channel at astonishing speed. The French were unable to organize any coordinated counterattack as the German Panzers swept through French-ordered halt lines before the French forces had even managed to occupy them. A few counterattacks were met and overcome,... More
In 1797, during the French Revolutionary Wars, the Papal States signed the Treaty of Tolentino, paying a substantial armistice fee and ceding territory to the invading French. In 1798 Rome was taken by French troops, who established the Roman Republic, a satellite state of the French Republic. After the Battle... More
By his death in 1216, Pope Innocent III had increased papal power and extended the influence of the papacy over European monarchs. It was his belief that the Papal States were under threat from the expansionist plans of the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI, who had already claimed the kingdom... More
During the Renaissance, the Papal States expanded, especially under Pope Alexander VI and Pope Julius II. By the time of the Reformation from 1517, followed by the Counter-Reformation from 1545, the Papal States claimed, or controlled, Parma, Modena, Bologna, Romagne and Perouse, in addition to Rome. The pope was not... More
Philip II (r. 1180–1223) began the conversion of Paris into a capital befitting the growing power of France. The city walls and fortress of the Louvre were both commenced in 1190. Completed in 1220, the walls encompassed ten gates and 75 watchtowers: the security they afforded encouraged the rapid commercial... More
In 1700, Paris was the second largest city in Europe, with London the first. In 1701 it expanded into twelve suburbs (faubourgs), which formed a clockwise spiral within and beyond the old city wall, which Louis XIV (1638–1715) had pulled down and replaced with boulevards. Despite moving his court to... More
By 1789, Paris was the largest city in France and, on the eve of the Revolution of 1789, had a population of 600,000–650,000. Many had migrated from the Paris basin and from other parts of northern France. 1789 Paris remained largely unchanged since 1701, when Louis XIV relocated the royal... More
The British electoral system in the early 1830s was outdated, unrepresentative and highly prone to corruption and patronage. The electorate was a small percentage of the population, and the assortment of boroughs and counties varied massively in the size of the electorate they contained. Each county elected two members until... More
Dunwich in Suffolk was a thriving medieval town until it was inundated by the sea in the 14th century. But it still returned two MPs to the pre-Reform parliament, as did the seven electors of Old Sarum and Gatton respectively. Before ennoblement, the Duke of Wellington served as MP for... More
Rome had unfinished business with Parthia since 53 BCE, when their archers and cavalry annihilated the Roman army of Crassus at Carrhae. The Roman emperor Trajan, using as a pretext the installation of a nephew of the Parthian ruler as king of Armenia, launched a full-scale invasion. He first annexed... More
In the period 1772–95, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was annexed by Russia, Prussia and Austria during three separate partition agreements. Poland itself was politically compromised with many of its diplomats controlled through Russian bribes. It was also militarily and economically weakened by civil war and became gradually more so with each... More
1917 began ominously for the Allies. The February Revolution in Russia threatened the collapse of the eastern front, and the German resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare was severely degrading Allied supply lines on the western front. Initiated by General Haig, the Battle of Passchendaele had two primary objectives: to close... More