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Organization of the Christian Church at the Synod of Chalcedon 451 CE
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Organization of the Christian Church at the Synod of Chalcedon 451 CE
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In 451 CE, the fourth ecumenical council of the Christian Church convened in Chalcedon, Turkey. It was here that over 520 bishops met to agree on the doctrinal canons of Christianity. These included the Nicene Creed: God is the trinity of Father, Son and Holy Ghost, a view accepted by... More
Origins of the Cold War, Europe after World War II 1945–1949
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Origins of the Cold War, Europe after World War II 1945–1949
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After cooperating in World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became antagonists. Immediately after the Potsdam and Yalta agreements in 1945, the Soviet Union consolidated its control in eastern Europe, installing puppet regimes in Soviet-occupied territories. Tensions further heightened when the Soviet Union, under Joseph Stalin, blockaded... More
Osceola’s Rebellion 1835
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Osceola’s Rebellion 1835
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Like many Seminole, Osceola was mixed race, son of a Welsh trader and a Creek mother. He became leader of opposition to the Treaty of Payne’s Landing (1832), by which the Seminole were deemed to have exchanged their Florida homelands for territory in the West. In 1835, he ambushed and... More
Ostia, 849
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Ostia, 849
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The Emirate of Sicily was formed in 831 as part of the Aghlabid Caliphate and immediately Rome became a target for plunder. Following frequent pirate activity, which resulted in Saracen forces entering Rome and looting the Vatican in 846, the city’s defences were strengthened. A naval defence league was also... More
Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans 1350–1500
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Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans 1350–1500
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The Ottomans began their expansion into Europe from Anatolia with the capture of Gallipoli in 1354. From here they went on to attack Thrace and secured their first important city, Adrianople, in the 1360s. Adrianople then became their capital until the seat of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, was finally taken... More
Ottoman Empire 1453
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Ottoman Empire 1453
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From 1430 onwards the Ottomans, under Sultan Murad II, began a campaign to recover their lost Balkan territories. By 1439 they had taken Borač, Zvornik and Srebrenica, and by 1440 Serbia had become an Ottoman province. In 1444 Murad heavily defeated a crusading army of Poles, Hungarians, Croatians, Serbs and... More
Ottoman Empire War on Four Fronts November 1914
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Ottoman Empire War on Four Fronts November 1914
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The Ottoman Empire triggered their entry into World War I with an attack on Russia’s Black Sea coast in November 1914. At the time, their armed forces had yet to recover from the heavy casualties, and blow to morale, inflicted by the 1912–13 Balkan War. In response to this debacle,... More
Ottoman Empire, 1683–1914
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Ottoman Empire, 1683–1914
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The Great Turkish War of 1683–99 saw the Ottoman Empire lose large areas of territory in Hungary and Transylvania after a defeat at the hands of a united Christian army of the Holy League. In 1724, the Ottomans took territory from the Safavid Dynasty of Iran during a period of... More
Ottoman High Command 1914–18
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Ottoman High Command 1914–18
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In 1913, following the loss of the bulk of their remaining European territory in the Balkan War, a coup d’état placed the Committee for Union and Progress (CUP) in charge of the Ottoman government. Within the CUP, real power resided with the so-called ‘Three Pashas’ Enver, Talaat and Djemal, who... More
Outposts along the Delaware c. 1650
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Outposts along the Delaware c. 1650
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In the early 1600s, a colonial conflict in miniature was waged along the Delaware River, with Dutch, Swedish and English participation. The Dutch staked the first claim. Fort Nassau (1623) was, with Fort Orange further north on the Hudson River, one of their first footholds in New Netherland. In 1638,... More
Overall Situation 6 August 1944
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Overall Situation 6 August 1944
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Following a slow push from Utah beach into the restrictive bocage terrain of the Cotentin Peninsula, the Americans focussed their attention on Cherbourg at the northern tip. Securing the city reduced the fighting in the area to one front in the south, although its functionality as a port was badly... More
Overland Trails 1834–80
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Overland Trails 1834–80
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The ‘Queen City of the Trails’, Independence was the furthest westward point navigable to steamboats on the Missouri River. Thereafter, migrant trails used fur-trading forts as their way-stations. Fort Laramie became known as ‘Camp Sacrifice’, because travellers abandoned so many of their less portable goods there. Fort Kearny was set... More