Under Operation Barbarossa, Field Marshal von Bock’s Army Group Centre had a target of Moscow. On 2 October 1941, Operation Typhoon – the Battle of Moscow – began with one million men, 1,700 tanks, 19,500 artillery guns and 750 combat aircraft at von Bock’s disposal. They began in favourable weather... More
Operation U-Go in March–June 1944 was the brainchild of Japanese Lieutenant-General Renya Mutaguchi who wanted to push towards the border between Burma and India in an attempt to cut the supply routes that passed through the towns of Imphal and Kohima and were used by the British forces in the... More
Having failed to achieve Japan’s capitulation by disruption of its maritime trade routes, in June 1944 the Americans began the high-altitude bombing of the country’s industrial centres with long-range B-29 Superfortresses based in China. As the war progressed and the Americans captured the Pacific islands one by one, they became... More
From the beginning of the war, the Confederates had built a formidable system of defences to protect their capital, Richmond. The southernmost cornerstone of this system was Fort Harrison, backing onto a bluff over the James River and facing the open pasture of Chaffin’s Farm. Hoping to lure Confederate Commander... More
By August 1814, the British fleet had been blockading Chesapeake Bay for over a year, intermittently raiding the coastline. The ending of the war with Napoleon enabled the British to reinforce the fleet with additional warships and 2,500 experienced troops under General Ross: it was decided to go on the... More
President Lincoln’s authorization of an invasion of the thinly populated state of Florida was something of a bagatelle; its capture would have more symbolic than strategic significance. However, the departure of Union General Seymour’s 6,000-strong expeditionary force was tracked by General Beauregard, Confederate Commander in the southeastern theatre, and he... More
As darkness descended on the battlefield of Prairie Grove (7 December), ravenous wild hogs descended upon the injured and dying. To light their field of fire in the gloom, Union gunners fired incendiaries into haystacks, unwittingly incinerating the wounded who had sheltered there for warmth. In a brutal battle, the... More
After an orgy of destruction, General Sherman left Meridian, Mississippi, on 20 February 1864, reporting ‘its depots, stores, arsenal, hospitals, offices and hotels no longer (exist)’. Yet the Confederates managed to get the all-important railroad junction operational in just 26 days. Sherman at least accomplished his mission. The performance of... More
After the Confederate defeat at Gettysburg (July 1863), the Confederate Army commander, General Robert E. Lee, retreated south to Virginia. After a lull, fighting began again on 12 October 1863, at Jeffersonton and Fauquier White Sulphur Springs, as part of Lee’s plan to cut off the Union Army’s line of... More
In a last ditch effort to free Axis forces trapped around Stalingrad, Field Marshall von Manstein of the newly formed Army Group Don planned to break through Russian lines under Operation Winter Storm. The 4th Panzer division attacked from the south on 12 December and made quick progress, catching the... More
In 451 CE, the fourth ecumenical council of the Christian Church convened in Chalcedon, Turkey. It was here that over 520 bishops met to agree on the doctrinal canons of Christianity. These included the Nicene Creed: God is the trinity of Father, Son and Holy Ghost, a view accepted by... More
After cooperating in World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became antagonists. Immediately after the Potsdam and Yalta agreements in 1945, the Soviet Union consolidated its control in eastern Europe, installing puppet regimes in Soviet-occupied territories. Tensions further heightened when the Soviet Union, under Joseph Stalin, blockaded... More