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Showing 1021–1032 of 1126 results

  • The Thirty Years’ War 1630–39

    The Thirty Years’ War 1630–39

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    The Thirty Years’ War 1630–39

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    The eminence grise of the Protestant cause was, ironically, a Catholic cardinal: Richelieu of France, determined to frustrate the Habsburgs. He had bankrolled Denmark’s disastrous intervention; in 1630, he backed a winner in Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II had sacked his most successful military leader,... More
  • The Thirty Years’ War 1640–48

    The Thirty Years’ War 1640–48

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    The Thirty Years’ War 1640–48

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    The siege of Arras (1640) was a turning point in the prolonged conflict; after capturing Arras, the French surged into Flanders, routing the Spanish at Rocroi (1643) and in the Netherlands, (Gent, Hulst, Dunkirk). The tide turned for the French in Germany, with defeats at Tutlingen and Herbsthausen. However, their... More
  • The Treaty of Lodi 1454

    The Treaty of Lodi 1454

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    The Treaty of Lodi 1454

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    From the late 14th century, the city states of northern Italy were engaged in near continuous warfare triggered by the expansionism of the Visconti dynasty in Milan. Pitted against Milan was Florence, but, as the conflict evolved, Venice exploited the disruption by systematically extending its territories westward, initially as the... More
  • The Trentino Offensive May–June 1916

    The Trentino Offensive May–June 1916

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    The Trentino Offensive May–June 1916

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    The Trentino offensive was a major action, the Austro-Hungarian High Command assembling 18 divisions for the task, aiming to strike directly at the Italian heartland via the Asiago plateau, thereby isolating the Italian armies around Isonzo. Although pre-warned of the military build-up, the local Italian commander, General Brusati, was insufficiently... More
  • The United States 1850

    The United States 1850

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    The United States 1850

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    In a busy decade, the northern borders with British territory were resolved by the Webster-Ashburton and Oregon Treaties (1842, 1846), and the Union was expanded by the admission of Florida, and the (consensual) annexation of Texas in 1845. A jingoistic war with Mexico followed over disputed borders. Decisive American victory... More
  • The United States 1860

    The United States 1860

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    The United States 1860

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    Even as the Union began to realize its ‘manifest destiny’ of dominion ‘from sea to shining sea’, internal contradictions began to threaten disintegration. The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) abolished the slavery ‘line of demarcation’ proposed by the Missouri Compromise (1830), making the position on slavery in new states a decision for... More
  • The United States 1870

    The United States 1870

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    The United States 1870

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    With the secession of the Southern States in 1861, the Union was shattered, and 600,000 lives would be lost in four years of civil war. Yet the process of territorial evolution did not cease. Kansas was admitted as a free state (1861) shortly before the outbreak of war, while West... More
  • The United States 1880

    The United States 1880

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    The United States 1880

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    On paper, the United States was relatively quiescent in the 1870s: the only territorial acquisitions were the Juan de Fuca Islands in the northwest (1872) in settlement of a long-running dispute with Canada, the only new state Colorado (admitted in 1876). But the decade saw the pacification of the frontier... More
  • The United States 1900

    The United States 1900

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    The United States 1900

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    Between 1889 and 1893, a series of ‘land runs’ resulted from opening up former Indian reservation land in western Oklahoma to settlers. In 1890, the US Census Bureau formally declared the American Frontier closed, based on the spread of settlement throughout the West. A cluster of state admissions reflected the... More
  • The United States 1920

    The United States 1920

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    The United States 1920

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    The Mexican Revolution (1910–20) produced protracted upheaval along the American border. Streams of refugees fled the fighting, and rebels used the American Southwest desert as their bolthole. The instability helped to prompt admission of Arizona and New Mexico to the Union (1912). Their incorporation did not prevent a series of... More
  • The United States January 1861

    The United States January 1861

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    The United States January 1861

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    In virtually all the factors necessary to prosecute a war successfully, the Union outmatched the Confederacy. Their population was 21 million compared to 9 million in the South, of which 3.5 million were slaves. Their industrial capacity was eight times greater, producing 93 per cent of the country’s pig iron,... More
  • The US Expedition to Tripoli 1803–15

    The US Expedition to Tripoli 1803–15

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    The US Expedition to Tripoli 1803–15

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    In the late 18th century, Barbary pirates terrorized Mediterranean shipping from their bases in Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Morocco. The local rulers both abetted, and profited from, their activities. The pirates demanded large ransoms for ships and crew they captured, then tribute from the affected governments to avoid further attacks.... More