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  • Greek Italy c. 500 BCE

    Greek Italy c. 500 BCE

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    Greek Italy c. 500 BCE

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    The colonies of ‘Greater Greece’ were planted as far afield as Spain and North Africa, but nowhere compared for prosperity, power and density of settlement to southern Italy and Sicily. Often, the impetus for colonization was domestic misfortune, either brought about by rival Greek city-states, or, as in the case... More
  • Highland Clearances 1745–1881

    Highland Clearances 1745–1881

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    Highland Clearances 1745–1881

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    After the Jacobite defeat at Culloden in 1746, the British government were determined to erase the culture of the Scottish Highlands. They banned the speaking of Gaelic, playing of the bagpipes, the wearing of tartan and gatherings in public places. These deprivations were cruelly compounded by the Highland Clearances, described... More
  • House of Representatives passes Civil Rights Act 1964

    House of Representatives passes Civil Rights Act 1964

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    House of Representatives passes Civil Rights Act 1964

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    The Civil Rights Act (1964) outlawed discrimination based on race, religion, colour, sex or national origin in the United States. Incoming President Johnson used the assassination of his predecessor in its advocacy: ‘no memorial oration… could more eloquently honour President Kennedy’s memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil... More
  • Hungary under Matthew Corvinus 1477–90

    Hungary under Matthew Corvinus 1477–90

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    Hungary under Matthew Corvinus 1477–90

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    Matthew Corvinus was the son of the renowned Hungarian general, John Hunyadi, who defeated the Ottoman conqueror of Constantinople, Murad II, at the Battle of Belgrade (1456). Elected Hungarian king by its parliament at just 14 (largely through papal influence, out of regard for his father’s achievements in protecting Christendom),... More
  • India c.1795

    India c.1795

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    India c.1795

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    During the first century or so of the East India Company’s existence it employed a few hundred soldiers as guards for its trading stations and possessions in transit. Great expansion of its armed force began under Clive; by the early 1760s it had 26,000 men under arms and by 1778... More
  • International Organizations c. 2004

    International Organizations c. 2004

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    International Organizations c. 2004

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    Independent organizations are collections of independent political entities or sovereign states, who help maintain stability and peace by encouraging cooperation and shared benefits, such as tariff elimination between member countries. In 2004, the EU (European Union) trade bloc had its largest single expansion and included many new countries from eastern... More
  • Ireland in June 1922

    Ireland in June 1922

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    Ireland in June 1922

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    The revolutionary leader, soldier and politician Michael Collins argued that the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) gave Ireland ‘the freedom to achieve freedom’. He also told his counterparty, Lord Birkenhead, that by signing it he had signed his own ‘death warrant’. This would prove prophetic: he was ambushed and killed by anti-Treaty... More
  • Irish General Election 1918

    Irish General Election 1918

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    Irish General Election 1918

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    Eamonn De Valera was a commander in the Easter Rising, narrowly escaping execution. Sentenced instead to life imprisonment, he was abruptly released by amnesty in 1917, and, as a rare surviving rebel leader, was promptly elected leader of Sinn Féin, now the political vehicle of the rebel cause. The 1918... More
  • Irish Penal Laws

    Irish Penal Laws

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    Irish Penal Laws

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    The Irish statesman, Edmund Burke, described the Penal Laws thus: ‘a machine of wise and elaborate contrivance, as well fitted for the oppression, impoverishment and degradation of a people… as ever proceeded from the perverted ingenuity of man’. The Laws were promulgated piecemeal from the Tudor Reformation onwards, then intensified... More
  • Irish Plantations 1605–20

    Irish Plantations 1605–20

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    Irish Plantations 1605–20

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    Although the English first established plantations (confiscated and colonized lands) in Ireland from the 12th century, the 16th–17th centuries plantations were Protestant and displaced Catholic rule in much of Ireland. The first Protestant plantation, established in 1582, was Munster. To settle this region, the English colonizers brutally suppressed resistance (destroying... More
  • Irish Separation 1918–23

    Irish Separation 1918–23

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    Irish Separation 1918–23

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    The General Election of December 1918 produced a landslide for the nationalist Sinn Féin party in Ireland. Many of their 73 elected MPs were in prison – without trial, though purported involvement in a ‘German Plot’. The election was heavily polarized: the second largest party was the Ulster Unionists with... More
  • Italian States 1789

    Italian States 1789

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    Italian States 1789

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    Following the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14) Austria was the dominant foreign power in Italy – the Papal States, the maritime republics of Venice and Genoa, and the Duchy of Savoy all remained independent. The power of the Papal States had declined after the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, when the... More