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  • France in 1789

    France in 1789

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    France in 1789

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    In 1789, pre-revolutionary France was a jumble of mostly feudal lands, 80 per cent peasant, which had been acquired over preceding centuries. While French was the language of the north, in southern France many only spoke their regional language. The political and administrative structures of pre-revolutionary France were subject to... More
  • France in 1789: Language and Law

    France in 1789: Language and Law

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    France in 1789: Language and Law

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    Pre-Revolutionary France was a lawyers’ paradise: written Roman law prevailed in the south, customary feudal law in the north, with frequent local overlap in codes and practice. Intendents were the regional representatives of royal authority, controlling the policing, finances and justiciary of the provinces they administered. The Prévots Maréchaux handled... More
  • Francia 990–1031

    Francia 990–1031

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    Francia 990–1031

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    Hugh Capet established the Capetian line in 987 when he was elected king of the Franks. His direct line of hereditary rule which would last 13 generations. Hugh made his son Robert co-ruler shortly after his own coronation, claiming that another king was needed in case he died during an... More
  • Free Black Population 1800 and 1830

    Free Black Population 1800 and 1830

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    Free Black Population 1800 and 1830

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    Pre-Independence, the term ‘free black’ meant black people who were not slaves. This term continued until the abolition of slavery in 1865. In 1800 and 1830, the northern states’ free black populations were higher than in the south, which depended on slave labour. Vermont was the first to ban slavery... More
  • French Guinea 1990

    French Guinea 1990

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    French Guinea 1990

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    The mineral-rich colony of French Guinea (part of French West Africa) was made independent in 1958 under the leadership of President Ahmed Sékou Touré. Touré severed all links with France and turned Guinea into a Marxist republic and, until the military coup in 1984, Guinea was run as a dictatorship.... More
  • Gaza 1967–83

    Gaza 1967–83

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    Gaza 1967–83

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    The annexation of the Gaza Strip by Israel was an accidental by-product of the Six-Day War. Initially, Israeli forces were specifically prohibited from entering it, but when Palestinians there shelled nearby Israeli settlements, its capture was ordered. Prior to the war, the Strip had been under Egyptian military occupation since... More
  • German Expansion 1936–39

    German Expansion 1936–39

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    German Expansion 1936–39

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    Nazi Germany’s pursuit of Lebensraum (‘living space’), began legitimately. The 1935 Saarland plebiscite had been mandated at Versailles, and the Saarlanders elected to join Germany. Hitler seemed taken with plebiscites: he held another the following year in the Rhineland, after first occupying it with his army in contravention of Versailles,... More
  • German Unification 1815–71

    German Unification 1815–71

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    German Unification 1815–71

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    The experience of collective subjection under Napoleonic rule awakened a spirit of German nationalism for long dissipated in the dynastic patchwork quilt of the Holy Roman Empire. After liberation, the establishment of a Customs Union (1834) and a common rail network have been described as the ‘Siamese Twins’ facilitating the... More
  • Germany 1990

    Germany 1990

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    Germany 1990

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    Germany’s partition occurred through Allied negotiation at the end of World War II. The East came under Soviet control, with further partition of the city of Berlin into Western and Eastern Zones of occupation. From 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev introduced liberalizing policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) designed to avert... More
  • Grange Railroads 1890

    Grange Railroads 1890

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    Grange Railroads 1890

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    The Granger movement was initiated by Oliver Hudson Kelley, an official of the Department of Agriculture, in 1867. Its founding body, the Patrons of Husbandry (the Grange), was dedicated to modernizing farming practice. From its origins in the Midwest, the movement spread across the country, reaching a peak membership of... More
  • Greece on the Eve of the Peloponnesian War 435 BCE

    Greece on the Eve of the Peloponnesian War 435 BCE

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    Greece on the Eve of the Peloponnesian War 435 BCE

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    The starting point of the Peloponnesian War was the expansion of Athenian power, especially as it began to extend into the Greek west and Sicily. Corinth, strategically placed on the route northwest was feeling increasingly vulnerable, and when the Athenians and Corinthians clashed diplomatically over the island of Corcyra (Corfu)... More
  • Greece under the Theban Hegemony 371–362 BCE

    Greece under the Theban Hegemony 371–362 BCE

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    Greece under the Theban Hegemony 371–362 BCE

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    The city of Thebes, according to legend founded by King Cadmus, was located in Boeotia, the fertile region of central Greece. In 447 BCE the city of Thebes instigated the foundation of the Alliance of Boeotians, which shared a common foreign policy and defensive force. The Boeotians were allies of... More