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  • Italian Unification 1861

    Italian Unification 1861

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    Italian Unification 1861

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    The unification of Italy, also known as the Risorgimento, was a complex process that transformed Italy from a mosaic of independent states, kingdoms and foreign-controlled territories into a united Italian state. The movement for Italian unification emerged in the early 19th century, fuelled by a desire for political independence, cultural... More
  • Italy 1815–1924

    Italy 1815–1924

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    Italy 1815–1924

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    After the Napoleonic occupation ended in 1815, much of Italy wanted unification, but was prohibited from doing so by Austrian intervention. Under Austria’s insistence, a decision was made by conservative forces within Europe to restore Italy to its pre-Napoleonic borders. Austria was given control of the kingdom of Lombardy and... More
  • Japan 1580–98

    Japan 1580–98

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    Japan 1580–98

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    Towards the end of the 16th century, warrior and dictator Toyotomi Hideyoshi led Japan from a time of war and feudal battles to national unity. He began as a humble warrior, growing to prominence in the army of Oda Nobunaga. After Nobunaga’s death by suicide in 1582, Hideyoshi emerged from... More
  • Japan in the Edo Period 1560–89

    Japan in the Edo Period 1560–89

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    Japan in the Edo Period 1560–89

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    By 1582, the ruthless daimyo (‘warlord’) Oda Nobunaga was close to securing dominance in Japan following over a century of internecine strife, but he was assassinated by a disaffected lieutenant, Akechi Mitsuhide. He was swiftly revenged by another lieutenant, Toyotomi Hideyoshi at the battle of Yamazaki, fresh from his capture... More
  • Jewish Population c. 1900

    Jewish Population c. 1900

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    Jewish Population c. 1900

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    Catherine II established the Pale of settlement, to which Jews were confined, in 1791. Within the Pale there was substantial Jewish migration to the southeastern provinces of Kherson and Yekaterinoslav in the 1800s. In line with his other liberalizing reforms, Alexander II introduced rights of residence outside the Pale, to... More
  • Kennedy’s Victory over Nixon 1960

    Kennedy’s Victory over Nixon 1960

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    Kennedy’s Victory over Nixon 1960

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    The 1960 election produced the closest popular vote margin of the 20th century (0.17 per cent in Kennedy’s favour) although Kennedy won the Electoral College comfortably, by 309 to 219. It has been a commonplace that the charismatic John F. Kennedy gained the edge over the less prepossessing Richard Nixon... More
  • Kidnappings and Renditions 1824–54

    Kidnappings and Renditions 1824–54

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    Kidnappings and Renditions 1824–54

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    Under the Fugitive Slaves Acts (1793 and 1850), gangs, known as ‘black-birders’ received generous rewards for extraditing suspected fugitive slaves to their ‘owners’ in the South (‘rendition’). The prominent fugitive slaves Ellen and William Craft emigrated to England to avoid slave-catchers, while escaped Virginian slave and store-worker, Anthony Burns, became... More
  • Kingdoms of the Diadochi 200 BCE

    Kingdoms of the Diadochi 200 BCE

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    Kingdoms of the Diadochi 200 BCE

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    The Diadochi (literally, ‘successors’) were the military commanders and administrators who vied for supremacy over the cities and regions conquered by Alexander III ‘the Great’ of Macedon after his death in 323 BCE. By 300 BCE the empire had fragmented into four principal regions administered (from west to east) by... More
  • Korea 246 BCE–530 CE

    Korea 246 BCE–530 CE

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    Korea 246 BCE–530 CE

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    The earliest northern Korean kingdom, founded in the later 1st millennium BCE, was Gojoseon while, in the south, the Jin kingdom dominated in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE. In 108 BCE the Chinese Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon, bringing about the Proto-Three Kingdoms era, comprising a series of small independent... More
  • Land Held by Native Americans c. 1790

    Land Held by Native Americans c. 1790

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    Land Held by Native Americans c. 1790

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    In 1790, although it was determined that all commerce with Native Americans, including land purchases, should be fair and under federal jurisdiction, hostility remained between Native Americans and the settlers. Between 1790–1832 many Indian treaties were signed under federal authority. However, some tribes felt their lands were ceded under pressure,... More
  • Land Ordinance of 1785

    Land Ordinance of 1785

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    Land Ordinance of 1785

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    In the Ordinance of 1785, Thomas Jefferson proposed that the vast new territories acquired under the Treaty of Paris should be incorporated into the new Union as separate (rather than expanded) states: the mechanism for new state creation would be further clarified in the North-West Ordinance of 1787. While these... More
  • Leipzig Campaign 1813

    Leipzig Campaign 1813

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    Leipzig Campaign 1813

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    After retreating from Russia in 1812, Napoleon launched a new campaign in Germany in 1813. The Russian army pursued the French into the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and Prussia, where the Prussian army changed sides under the Treaty of Kalisz and joined the Russian forces against Napoleon. Combined Prussian-Russian forces... More