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  • Irish Catholicism 1793–1902

    Irish Catholicism 1793–1902

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    Irish Catholicism 1793–1902

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    The early 19th century witnessed a resurgence in the Irish Catholic Church, characterized by a cathedral-building boom, rising numbers of clergy, and an accompanying ‘devotional’ revolution. The turnaround began with the phased removal of the anti Catholic Penal Laws (1778–93), and an important engine was Maynooth Seminary, north of Dublin,... More
  • Irish Churchmen and Scholars in Europe

    Irish Churchmen and Scholars in Europe

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    Irish Churchmen and Scholars in Europe

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    Traces of the earliest Irish missionaries in Europe come in fabular form through the fog of the early Dark Ages. St Fridolin is reported to have founded churches and abbeys as far afield as Switzerland in the early 6th century. The origin of many of the early missions was St... More
  • Irish Dynasties and English Settlement c. 1300

    Irish Dynasties and English Settlement c. 1300

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    Irish Dynasties and English Settlement c. 1300

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    Dermot MacMurrough, King of Leinster, who had been exiled by Rory O’Connor, the High King of Ireland, originally invited the Normans to Ireland. Despite O’Connor’s grand title, Ireland was by then divided between warring fiefdoms, and ripe for conquest when MacMurrough returned (1167) with Norman support under Richard Strongbow, Earl... More
  • Irish Economy to 1841

    Irish Economy to 1841

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    Irish Economy to 1841

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    The Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815) created boom conditions. Insulated from the continent-wide conflict, Ireland’s agricultural sector, which exported meat and increasingly grain, benefited from escalating food prices. Landowners converted pasture to tillage to become Britain’s ‘bread-basket’, using ‘cottier’ tenant farmers and ‘conacre’ labourers, who subsisted on high-yield potato crops on progressively... More
  • Irish Emigration 1690–1845

    Irish Emigration 1690–1845

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    Irish Emigration 1690–1845

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    In 1836, half the population of Newfoundland was of Irish descent, overwhelmingly Catholics from Munster who had originally participated in the seasonal trans-Atlantic fisheries. High rents, enclosure, and rapacious agents of absentee landlords created endemic unrest in rural Ireland, exemplified by secret societies like the Ribbonmen and White Boys, and... More
  • Irish General Election 1918

    Irish General Election 1918

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    Irish General Election 1918

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    Eamonn De Valera was a commander in the Easter Rising, narrowly escaping execution. Sentenced instead to life imprisonment, he was abruptly released by amnesty in 1917, and, as a rare surviving rebel leader, was promptly elected leader of Sinn Féin, now the political vehicle of the rebel cause. The 1918... More
  • Irish in America 1850–1929

    Irish in America 1850–1929

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    Irish in America 1850–1929

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    Early Irish immigration was predominantly Presbyterian, and often gravitated to the frontiers of the time. The Great Famine (1848–52) triggered a massive increase in immigration, which was overwhelmingly Catholic. The newer arrivals usually settled in major urban centres, particularly New York, Boston and Philadelphia. The New England mill towns and... More
  • Irish Penal Laws

    Irish Penal Laws

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    Irish Penal Laws

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    The Irish statesman, Edmund Burke, described the Penal Laws thus: ‘a machine of wise and elaborate contrivance, as well fitted for the oppression, impoverishment and degradation of a people… as ever proceeded from the perverted ingenuity of man’. The Laws were promulgated piecemeal from the Tudor Reformation onwards, then intensified... More
  • Irish Plantations 1605–20

    Irish Plantations 1605–20

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    Irish Plantations 1605–20

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    Although the English first established plantations (confiscated and colonized lands) in Ireland from the 12th century, the 16th–17th centuries plantations were Protestant and displaced Catholic rule in much of Ireland. The first Protestant plantation, established in 1582, was Munster. To settle this region, the English colonizers brutally suppressed resistance (destroying... More
  • Irish Plantations c. 1550–1620

    Irish Plantations c. 1550–1620

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    Irish Plantations c. 1550–1620

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    The ‘plantations’ in Ireland were Crown-sponsored settlements of Protestant migrants on land confiscated from the unruly Irish clans. The system’s culmination occurred in Ulster under the Stuart king, James I. Here the settlement was organized by a mix of ‘Undertakers’ (wealthy colonists who ‘undertook’ to import tenants to populate and... More
  • Irish Pre-Famine Economy 1821–41

    Irish Pre-Famine Economy 1821–41

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    Irish Pre-Famine Economy 1821–41

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    After a boom during the Napoleonic Wars, Ireland’s manufacturing industries stagnated after the Act of Union (1801). Karl Marx (in the 1860s) described Ireland as ‘an agricultural district of England (to which) it yields corn, wool, cattle, industrial and military recruits’. Nevertheless, in the 1841 census, a third of the... More
  • Irish Railways c. 2006

    Irish Railways c. 2006

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    Irish Railways c. 2006

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    The Irish tail network reached a peak in 1920 with close to 3,440 miles (5,500 km) of track. A long period of retrenchment and decline followed. In the Irish Civil War, anti-Treaty combatants systematically attacked the rail infrastructure, and partition disrupted service patterns, particularly for County Donegal. Poor service, owing... More