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  The Winter War November 1939–March 1940

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  The Winter War November 1939–March 1940

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  Also known as the Russo-Finnish War, the Winter War came about after Finland refused to negotiate with the Soviets over the acquisition of land on the Karelian Isthmus and a naval base at Hanko. The Soviets attacked on several fronts, yet made few gains. The Finns made some failed counterattacks,... More
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  The Wireless War 1939–45

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  The Wireless War 1939–45

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  Encrypted communications were used by all major military powers by World War II, so the ability to crack methods of encryption was vital to maintaining the upper hand in strategic decisions. The Germans used the Enigma machine and its successors, the much more powerful Lorenz SZ40 and SZ42, to encrypt... More
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  The World 1 CE

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  The World 1 CE

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  While Rome was pre-eminent at the dawn of the Christian era, its expansionist momentum was beginning to stall. The Parthians inflicted a crushing defeat in 53 BCE, the German tribes in 9 CE and Cush would prove too troublesome to subdue. The Han in China were also suffering from imperial... More
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  The World 1000 CE

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  The World 1000 CE

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  The second millennium dawned with few dominant imperial powers; the last pan-Muslim caliphate, the Abbasids, had long since fragmented into multiple dynasties, from the Zirids of Northwest Africa to the Qarakhanids of Central Asia. In China, the Khitan Empire, with its capital in Beijing, threatened prosperous Song dynasty. In Southeast... More
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  The World 1250 BCE

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  The World 1250 BCE

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  The Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE between the Egypt of Rameses II and the Hittites was a clash to determine supremacy in the Near East between the primary regional powers of the time. The result was inconclusive and over the next century the two rivals would increasingly be overshadowed... More
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  The World 1400 CE

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  The World 1400 CE

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  After the expulsion of the Mongols in 1368, the Ming Empire in China, with a standing army of a million troops and a population nearing 100 million, was probably the wealthiest and most powerful dominion worldwide. To the west, the empire of Timur was nearing the peak. In 1402, Timur... More
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  The World 1500 CE

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  The World 1500 CE

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  The fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans (1453) shocked Christian Europe, but its subsequent renaissance was not purely cultural. By the dawn of the 15th century, the Holy Roman Empire, France, England and Spain had all acquired strong, secure dynastic rule, while Hungary, under John Hunyadi and Matthew Corvinus, was... More
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  The World 1600

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  The World 1600

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  In the 16th century, the Portuguese had established the first pan-global trading empire with outposts from Brazil to Nagasaki, while the Spanish were extracting vast wealth from their viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru. The Ming were in steady decline in China, while the Mughals were at their peak in... More
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  The World 1700

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  The World 1700

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  There was a change in the European power balances in the 17th century, with the ground-breaking first colonizers from Iberia becoming increasingly outrivalled by the maritime powers of France, England and the Dutch. France under Louis XIV was also Europe’s dominant terrestrial power, but would soon be humbled, with its... More
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  The World 1800

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  The World 1800

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  In 1800, the European order dominated the world map with its rival, the Ottoman Empire, falling behind. In 1800, the United States was independent, but the southwest remained under Spanish control. Central and South America, in addition to the West Indies, were western European possessions. The British controlled much of... More
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  The World 1850

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  The World 1850

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  By 1850, the need for raw materials continued to drive the expansion of European empires. This generated a ‘scramble’ for land, particularly in Africa and Southeast Asia. This imperialist drive created the beginnings of globalization, but also acted as a catalyst for revolution and nationalist movements. Not only were there... More
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  The World 1914

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  The World 1914

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  In the period from the Treaty of Frankfurt in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I, the European powers were ostensibly at peace but locked in a fierce rivalry which found expression in the New Imperialism, a period of rapid colonial expansion. Spurred by a second industrial revolution, the... More