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The Treaty of Paris 1783
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The Treaty of Paris 1783
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The Treaty of Paris, signed in Paris in 1783 by America and Britain, recognized American independence. The terms, superficially, seemed generous: land granted to the west of the pre-existing colonies more than doubled the size of the nascent state. But Britain had a sound commercial interest in maintaining constructive relations,... More
The Treaty of Westphalia 1648
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The Treaty of Westphalia 1648
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The negotiations for the peace of Westphalia lasted almost six years, and produced several separate treaties resolving both the Thirty Years’ War (involving France, the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden and various other combatants) and the Eighty Years’ War between Spain and the Netherlands. The main treaties were signed at Munster... More
The Trentino Offensive May–June 1916
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The Trentino Offensive May–June 1916
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The Trentino offensive was a major action, the Austro-Hungarian High Command assembling 18 divisions for the task, aiming to strike directly at the Italian heartland via the Asiago plateau, thereby isolating the Italian armies around Isonzo. Although pre-warned of the military build-up, the local Italian commander, General Brusati, was insufficiently... More
The Triassic World 250–200 million years ago
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The Triassic World 250–200 million years ago
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Almost all the earth’s landmass was conjoined in a vast C-shaped continent astride the Equator: Pangea. Surrounding it was Panthalassa, a vast ocean twice the breadth of the modern Pacific from which protruded the Tethys Ocean, a huge gulf forming the mouth of Pangea’s ‘C’. Much of present South and... More
The Ulster Question 1911
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The Ulster Question 1911
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By 1900, there was mounting pressure in Ireland for repeal of the 1801 Act of Union. The Irish Nationalist Party (INP), led by John Redmond, championed the ‘Home Rule’ movement. Two previous Home Rule Bills (1886, 1893) had been blocked by the House of Lords. However, the 1910 election resulted... More
The Umayyad Caliphate by 750
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The Umayyad Caliphate by 750
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The first of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad was the Rashidun (632–61), which was characterized by a period of rapid military expansion in the Middle East and North Africa, followed by a five-year period of civil war between the Caliph Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, and Muawiyah,... More
The Underground Railroad 1790–1865
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The Underground Railroad 1790–1865
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The underground railroad is a figurative term used to refer to the escape route of African-American runaway slaves to the free North, Canada, Mexico and overseas between 1790 and 1865. The network of secret routes and safe houses, known as stopping stations, criss-crossed much of the US. The fugitives, identified... More
The Unification of Germany 1871
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The Unification of Germany 1871
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On 18 January 1871, following decades of political turmoil and conflict, the states that comprised Germany were finally united under the leadership of Prussia, marking a significant milestone in the country's history. The unification process was primarily driven by Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, who utilised military force... More
The United States 1790
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The United States 1790
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The independent Republic of Vermont (1777–91) issued its own coinage and currency, and engaged in diplomatic relations with the Dutch, French and British before becoming the 14th state of the Union. The independent 'State of Frankland' was briefly declared in the western Carolinas in the 1780s before being suppressed: the... More
The United States 1800
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The United States 1800
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In the aftermath of independence, the westward expansion of the Union had yet to accrue the inevitability which marked the era of “manifest destiny”. Despite the massive territorial windfall of the Treaty of Paris, the new Republic remained hemmed in by hostile imperial powers, Spain and Britain, and the process... More
The United States 1810
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The United States 1810
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Fulwar Skipwith was proclaimed governor of the short-lived 'Republic of West Florida' in November 1810. Within weeks, the 'Republic' had been suppressed by an American military expedition, serving as a convenient pretext for the annexation of the disputed territory from Spain. The expedition had been mounted from Orleans territory, the... More
The United States 1820
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The United States 1820
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The Treaty of 1818 with Britain fixed the northern United States border at the 49th parallel, confirming the Red River Basin as American, while providing for joint settlement of the Oregon Country. In the south, Andrew Jacksons 1817–18 Seminole War led, through its overenthusiastic prosecution, to the occupation of much... More