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The New Turkey 1926
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The New Turkey 1926
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The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) ceded Ottoman territory in Arab Asia and North Africa to the Allies; in 1923, the Turkish War of Independence finally saw off the Allied occupation. Armenia was made independent and Kurdistan (Kars) declared autonomous. The Ankara Agreement replaced this treaty in 1921, when France ceded... More
The New World Order c. 1990
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The New World Order c. 1990
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Deterioration of the Soviet Union’s economy throughout the 1980s paved the way for a number of radical institutional changes under the presidency of Mikhail Gorbachev. In 1988, Gorbachev made the extent of Soviet ambitions for political change on a national and international scale clear to the world in a speech... More
The New York Central Railroad 1853–1970
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The New York Central Railroad 1853–1970
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The New York Central Railroad, taken over by Amtrak in 1971, serves most of the northeast and extends as far north as Montreal and Ottawa in Canada. Formed from the 1853 merger of ten railroads by Erastus Corning, an entrepreneur and Mayor of Albany, the railroad followed the path of... More
The New York, Chicago and St Louis Railroad 1881–1964
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The New York, Chicago and St Louis Railroad 1881–1964
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The Nickel Plate Railroad (the nickname came from the windfalls it generated for towns it passed through) was conceived as a means of breaking the monopoly of William H. Vanderbilt and Jay Gould over the east-west rail routes and their high freight charges. To eliminate the competition, Vanderbilt bought the... More
The New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad 1844–1969
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The New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad 1844–1969
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The New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad’s (NH) predecessor was the Hartford and New Haven Railroad (H&NH), which operated from 1844–72. The H&HN offered services in New England from New Haven, Connecticut, to Springfield, Massachusetts. The NH was formed after merging the H&NH with the New York and New... More
The Nivelle Offensive 16–19 April 1917
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The Nivelle Offensive 16–19 April 1917
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The new French Chief of Staff, Robert Nivelle, had strong-armed through an audacious plan to ‘end the war in two days’ over the objections of the British Chief of Staff, General Haig and the French War Minister. On 16 April 1917 French divisions mounted a simultaneous assault on a 50-mile... More
The Nivelle Plan 1917
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The Nivelle Plan 1917
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Robert Nivelle came to prominence in the Battle of the Marne when the devastating artillery fire he organized helped stem the German advance on Paris. Promoted to General, he went on to lead the fêted defence of Verdun, using his tactical innovation of saturation bombardment followed by the creeping barrage,... More
The Norfolk and Western Railway 1870–1981
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The Norfolk and Western Railway 1870–1981
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The Norfolk and Western Railway (NW) began life as the Atlantic, Mississippi & Ohio Railroad and operated from 1870, after damaged railway systems were restored following the US Civil War. The Railway was owned by William and Otelia Mahone, Virginians, rumoured to have created the acronym, AM&O, to mean ‘All... More
The Norman Consolidation in England, Wales and Southern Scotland 1086–1200
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The Norman Consolidation in England, Wales and Southern Scotland 1086–1200
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Norman castles were a foreign intrusion on the British landscape. The signature Saxon defensive structure was the burh, a fortified settlement that protected ruler and ruled alike. The Normans, greatly outnumbered by a hostile native population, used earthwork motte-and-bailey structures for the first-wave of subjugation, following up with massive ‘statement’... More
The North German Confederation 1867
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The North German Confederation 1867
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The North German Confederation was formed after Prussia’s victory over Austria in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866. Austria was excluded from Germany, and Prussia established hegemony over a federation of 22 German states. These states had federal autonomy, but were ultimately controlled by a constitution whose head of state, the... More
The Northern Pacific Railway 1864–1970
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The Northern Pacific Railway 1864–1970
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Approved in 1864, work did not begin on the Northern Pacific Railroad until 1870, owing to what would become a perennial struggle for financing. Intended to link the Great Lakes with the Puget Sound on the Pacific, the designated route traversed some of America’s most rugged wilderness: early work parties... More
The Northern Song 960–1127
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The Northern Song 960–1127
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In 960, military general Zhao Kuangyin led a military coup to overthrow the Later Zhou dynasty (the last of the Five Dynasties), enabling him to establish both the Song dynasty and himself as Emperor Taizu. The first era of the Song, known as Northern Song, was a prosperous time of... More