Reform

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  Italian Unification 1861

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  Italian Unification 1861

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  The unification of Italy, also known as the Risorgimento, was a complex process that transformed Italy from a mosaic of independent states, kingdoms and foreign-controlled territories into a united Italian state. The movement for Italian unification emerged in the early 19th century, fuelled by a desire for political independence, cultural... More
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  Male Suffrage in North America 1789–1897

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  Male Suffrage in North America 1789–1897

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  Following independence, the new states incorporated in the West overwhelmingly abandoned the property and tax-paying qualifications for white male suffrage that were standard in the 13 ex-colonies. Under pressure to reciprocate, eastern legislatures began to enact liberalizing measures in respect of white males – while removing previous eligibilities to vote... More
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  Parliamentary Representation after 1832

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  Parliamentary Representation after 1832

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  The British electoral system in the early 1830s was outdated, unrepresentative and highly prone to corruption and patronage. The electorate was a small percentage of the population, and the assortment of boroughs and counties varied massively in the size of the electorate they contained. Each county elected two members until... More
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  Peasant Discontent 1827–60

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  Peasant Discontent 1827–60

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  Increasingly, Russia’s rulers realized that the condition of serfdom needed to be addressed. Catherine the Great introduced prosecution for mistreatment of serfs by landowners, in the wake of the Pugachev revolt (1773–75). Paul I limited barshchina (service owed to the landowner) to three days a week, and Alexander I introduced... More
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  Percentage of Women in Total Workforce 1900

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  Percentage of Women in Total Workforce 1900

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  According to the Department of Labor, in 1900 women over the age of 16 constituted 18.3 per cent of the US labour force. 1900 was the early industrial era and there was a gradual movement away from agricultural trades into manufacturing. Domestic and personal services were still the dominant employment... More
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  The New World Order c. 1990

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  The New World Order c. 1990

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  Deterioration of the Soviet Union’s economy throughout the 1980s paved the way for a number of radical institutional changes under the presidency of Mikhail Gorbachev. In 1988, Gorbachev made the extent of Soviet ambitions for political change on a national and international scale clear to the world in a speech... More
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  The Reformation Parliament in Scotland 1560

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  The Reformation Parliament in Scotland 1560

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  John Knox, the leader of the Scottish Reformation, spent 18 months as a French galley-slave for his early muscular non-conformity. In 1555, with influential lairds, the ‘Lords of the Congregation’, now espousing Protestantism, he returned to Scotland, and soon local ‘reformations’, featuring the ‘cleansing’ of churches and friaries of ‘popish... More
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  The Unification of Germany 1871

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  The Unification of Germany 1871

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  On 18 January 1871, following decades of political turmoil and conflict, the states that comprised Germany were finally united under the leadership of Prussia, marking a significant milestone in the country's history. The unification process was primarily driven by Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, who utilised military force... More
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  The US Civil Rights Act 1964

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  The US Civil Rights Act 1964

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  Future Presidents Kennedy and Johnson opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1957, but the findings of the Commission created by that Act graphically anatomized the pervasiveness of discrimination in American society, and the perniciousness of its effects, promoting a sea-change in public opinion. When Kennedy was assassinated, his successor, President... More
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  The Voting Rights Act Under Scrutiny 1965–67

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  The Voting Rights Act Under Scrutiny 1965–67

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  In 1964 a wave of violent demonstrations over voting rights in the South, culminating in an attack by state troopers on peaceful marchers at Selma, Alabama, had convinced President Johnson that voting reform was long overdue. Congress passed the Voting Rights Act on 6 August 1965. It used the 14th... More
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  USSR to Russian Federation 1991

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  USSR to Russian Federation 1991

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  Political upheaval had left the Soviet Union in an increasingly desperate situation by the beginning of the 1990s. A failed coup against President Mikhail Gorbachev in August 1991 initiated a final series of events, which ended in dissolution just four months later on 26 December 1991. Although the Soviet Union... More
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  Women’s Legal Daily Working Hours and Manufacturing by Region 1850–1920

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  Women’s Legal Daily Working Hours and Manufacturing by Region 1850–1920

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  In 1850 women played a significant role in the industrialization process, with many working up to 14 hours a day in manufacturing industries which included woollen and cotton textiles, paper, rubber goods and shoes. Angry female mill workers in Pennsylvania brought about a ten-hour limit on the working day after... More