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Showing 37–48 of 124 results

  • Gran Colombia 1819-30

    Gran Colombia 1819-30

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    Gran Colombia 1819-30

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    Simón Bolívar, a soldier and statesman known as “The Liberator”, led the revolutions against Spanish rule in the northern regions of South America. His military career began in 1810, when he fought in support of Venezuelan independence. However, his efforts failed, and he fled abroad in 1815, returning to Venezuela... More
  • Grand Duchy of Warsaw 1810

    Grand Duchy of Warsaw 1810

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    Grand Duchy of Warsaw 1810

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    After the third partition in 1795, Polish populations remained concentrated in the annexed territories and were keen to have their sovereignty restored. Many fought with Napoleon against Austria, Russia and Prussia, now a prominent German state, the partitioning powers. They believed that if they supported Napoleon they would (as a... More
  • House of Representatives passes Civil Rights Act 1964

    House of Representatives passes Civil Rights Act 1964

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    House of Representatives passes Civil Rights Act 1964

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    The Civil Rights Act (1964) outlawed discrimination based on race, religion, colour, sex or national origin in the United States. Incoming President Johnson used the assassination of his predecessor in its advocacy: ‘no memorial oration… could more eloquently honour President Kennedy’s memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil... More
  • India: Religions c. 1950

    India: Religions c. 1950

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    India: Religions c. 1950

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    At the 1947 partition, roughly 25 per cent of the population of the Indian subcontinent was Muslim, forming a majority in territories that would become Pakistan, but with large minority populations throughout the western half of the Indian subcontinent. Other minorities, including Christians, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs, comprised some 5... More
  • Iraq 20 March 2003

    Iraq 20 March 2003

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    Iraq 20 March 2003

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    From the 1990s onwards, Iraq’s military strength was much reduced following the Gulf War. As international opposition to Saddam Hussein’s regime grew in the months leading up to the 20 March 2003 invasion, US forces were amassed in Kuwait ready for a thrust north towards Baghdad. Special Forces were also... More
  • Irish Separation 1918–23

    Irish Separation 1918–23

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    Irish Separation 1918–23

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    The General Election of December 1918 produced a landslide for the nationalist Sinn Féin party in Ireland. Many of their 73 elected MPs were in prison – without trial, though purported involvement in a ‘German Plot’. The election was heavily polarized: the second largest party was the Ulster Unionists with... More
  • Italian Unification 1861

    Italian Unification 1861

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    Italian Unification 1861

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    The unification of Italy, also known as the Risorgimento, was a complex process that transformed Italy from a mosaic of independent states, kingdoms and foreign-controlled territories into a united Italian state. The movement for Italian unification emerged in the early 19th century, fuelled by a desire for political independence, cultural... More
  • Land Use in the Russian Federation 1991

    Land Use in the Russian Federation 1991

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    Land Use in the Russian Federation 1991

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    In 1991, the USSR announced the independence of its former republics. After 1991, the privatized farms could not afford fertilizers or new machinery, causing yields to drop. Up to 1991, the Soviet Union was the world’s second leading power; yet despite its state-owned farming collectives yielding vast quantities of grain,... More
  • Latin America 1892

    Latin America 1892

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    Latin America 1892

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    Following the dismemberment of the Spanish Empire, Latin America remained highly unstable, with a succession of Caudillos, military strongmen, seizing power and waging war. Some of these wars were brutal: Paraguay lost up to half its population in conflict with Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina (1864–70); Bolivia lost its access to... More
  • Male Suffrage in North America 1789–1897

    Male Suffrage in North America 1789–1897

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    Male Suffrage in North America 1789–1897

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    Following independence, the new states incorporated in the West overwhelmingly abandoned the property and tax-paying qualifications for white male suffrage that were standard in the 13 ex-colonies. Under pressure to reciprocate, eastern legislatures began to enact liberalizing measures in respect of white males – while removing previous eligibilities to vote... More
  • Military Recruitment c. 1500

    Military Recruitment c. 1500

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    Military Recruitment c. 1500

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    The major centres of Islamic power in the 15th and 16th centuries all drew heavily on slave and mercenary recruitment to their armies. This was, in part, a recognition of fighting qualities, but also an attempt to thwart the development of rival power bases. This strategy sometimes backfired; the Mamluks... More
  • Monarchy in the World

    Monarchy in the World

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    Monarchy in the World

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    Monarchy describes a system of government in which the sovereign rules by order of succession, usually hereditary. Since the 19th century, the growth of parliamentary authority and the rise of communism has steadily extinguished hereditary monarchies; between 2010 and the present, there were only 43 monarchies in the world. Half... More