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Showing 25–36 of 144 results

  • Edward I’s Campaigns in Scotland 1296–1303

    Edward I’s Campaigns in Scotland 1296–1303

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    Edward I’s Campaigns in Scotland 1296–1303

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    In 1287 Edward I exploited Scotland’s succession crisis, following the death of King Alexander III, to impose his suzerainty; when the Scots demurred, Edward’s riposte was ruthless. Marching north in 1296, he brutally sacked Berwick, routed the Scots at Dunbar and returned to England with the Stone of Scone, the... More
  • Egypt & Nubia c. 1600–1560 BCE

    Egypt & Nubia c. 1600–1560 BCE

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    Egypt & Nubia c. 1600–1560 BCE

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    Power ebbed from the Egyptian monarchy after a succession of weak kings. It is also possible that the nomarchs (governors of the nomes) and other vested interests compounded this by imposing a rotational system of succession to undermine centralized control. Consequently, the fortification and policing of northern and southern borders,... More
  • Egypt in the First Intermediate Period c. 2150–2080 BCE

    Egypt in the First Intermediate Period c. 2150–2080 BCE

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    Egypt in the First Intermediate Period c. 2150–2080 BCE

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    The death of Pepi II after a reign of over 70 years ushered in a prolonged period of instability. A succession of weak and ephemeral rulers resulted in a steady leakage of real power to the nomarchs or regional governors. The first of these to have pretensions of pre-eminence was... More
  • England in 1065

    England in 1065

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    England in 1065

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    In the early part of his reign. Edward the Confessor (r. 1042–66), maintained a precarious authority over his kingdom by playing the powerful earls against one another. His judgement faltered, however, in 1051, when his predilection for appointing Normans to senior ecclesiastical positions provoked a confrontation with the Witan, his... More
  • England in 1066

    England in 1066

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    England in 1066

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    The death of Edward the Confessor in January 1066 began a complicated dispute over the succession to the English throne. Harold Godwinson, a powerful noble, became king in the absence of a viable successor amongst Edward’s broader bloodline. Meanwhile, the duke of Normandy William the Conqueror, claimed that Edward had... More
  • Europe 1500

    Europe 1500

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    Europe 1500

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    While the Renaissance reached a crescendo in its Italian heartland, the balance of political power shifted towards the continental periphery. In the east, the fall of Constantinople (1453) opened the path for Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. To the north, Ivan the Great of Muscovy managed to throw off the... More
  • Europe 1600

    Europe 1600

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    Europe 1600

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    In the late 16th century, elective monarchy appeared an increasingly successful model for governance. In the Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth, the enshrinement of the powers of the nobility in the Golden Liberty (1573) ushered in a period of unparalleled prosperity and political power. The newly independent Netherlands under their Stadtholders rapidly became... More
  • Europe 1700

    Europe 1700

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    Europe 1700

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    The turn of the 17th century was sandwiched between the Great Turkish War (1683–97), which effectively ended Ottoman expansion into Europe, and the Great Northern War (1700–21), through which Russia wrested control of the Baltic from Sweden, and effectively replaced the Ottomans as Europe’s threat to the east. The nightmare... More
  • Europe and the Mediterranean 476 CE

    Europe and the Mediterranean 476 CE

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    Europe and the Mediterranean 476 CE

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    The decline of the Roman Empire can be thought to have begun when an influx of Goths from central Europe crossed the River Danube and decisively defeated and greatly weakened the Romans’ eastern army at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. In 402 the western empire’s administration was moved from... More
  • Europe and the Mediterranean 500 CE

    Europe and the Mediterranean 500 CE

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    Europe and the Mediterranean 500 CE

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    For many Roman citizens the end of the empire was by no means disastrous. While the towns and infrastructure were battle-scarred and derelict, relative peace returned to the land, and it was possible to withdraw to estates, villas and farms and live a prosperous and comfortable life. In many areas... More
  • Europe in 1453

    Europe in 1453

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    Europe in 1453

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    The French victory at Castillon (1453) ended the Hundred Years’ War, leaving the defeated English with just the port of Calais as a toehold on the European mainland. In the same year, the long Byzantine resistance to the Ottomans was finally ended with the capture of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmet... More
  • Expansion of Muscovy 1462–1533

    Expansion of Muscovy 1462–1533

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    Expansion of Muscovy 1462–1533

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    The fall of Constantinople in 1453 allowed Ivan III (1462–1505) to style himself ‘tsar’, the natural successor to the emperors of Byzantium, and address the Holy Roman Emperor in correspondence as ‘brother’. Increasingly, his claims were justified. Although the Tatars were eliminated as a threat (the Crimean Khanate reached the... More