Decline

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Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 1204–66
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Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 1204–66
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In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks’ invasions of Anatolia displaced many Armenians from their heartland, with one refugee group finding sanctuary in the eastern Cilician mountains. This settlement became the nucleus of the future kingdom that, by the beginning of the 13th century, had become a substantial regional power,... More
Celtic Britain and the Lost Lands 500–770 CE
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Celtic Britain and the Lost Lands 500–770 CE
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By the time the Romans left Britain in c. 406 CE, much of modern England and Wales was controlled by Celtic warlords, the first ‘Britons’. In c. 450 CE England was invaded by waves of Germanic peoples (Anglo-Saxons). They were unable to subdue the tribal regions of modern Cornwall and... More
France in 1477
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France in 1477
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With the decisive French victory at Castillon in 1453, the Hundred Years’ War with England came to an end, with the English expelled from all their French possessions except Calais. France, however, comprised a multiplicity of rival fiefdoms, and the French King Charles VII, of the House of Orléans, controlled... More
Francia at the Death of Chlothar II c. 628
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Francia at the Death of Chlothar II c. 628
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Upon the death of Chilperic I in 584, Chlothar II (584–628) became king of Neustria and, later, of all Francia. As an infant he was under the regency of his mother Fredegund, taking power upon her death in 597. In 599 Clothar declared war on his Burgundian nephews, but was... More
Francia at the Death of Pepin of Heristal c. 714
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Francia at the Death of Pepin of Heristal c. 714
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Pepin II of Heristal (635–714) of the rich and powerful Pippinid family, was appointed ‘Mayor of the Palace’ in 680, and at once found himself in conflict Martin of Laon and Ebroin of Neustria. In 687, at Tertry on the River Somme, the Austrasian army under Pepin overwhelmingly defeated the... More
Jewish expansion under Hasmonean Dynasty 140–116 BCE
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Jewish expansion under Hasmonean Dynasty 140–116 BCE
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The dynasty derived its name from a distant priestly ancestor, Hasmonaeus, of the family that secured Jewish independence from the Seleucid Empire. Judah, the rebel leader, was killed in battle; his younger brother, Jonathan, took over and by skilful exploitation of Seleucid dynastic rivalries gained the governorship of Judaea and... More
Kingdom of Brittany 778–939
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Kingdom of Brittany 778–939
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The Roman emperor Maximus (r. 385–88) governed Britain before seizing power. When he moved on Rome, many of his veterans were demobbed in the Armorican peninsula, to be followed by more Britons fleeing Saxon invaders when the Roman Empire disintegrated. Hence the region became known as ‘Brittany’ to emphasize the... More
Pushyabhuti, Chalukya and Pallava State Formation c. 550–750
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Pushyabhuti, Chalukya and Pallava State Formation c. 550–750
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After the decline of the Gupta Empire, which had united ancient India and reached its zenith in c. 320-550 CE, the country broke up into several states, ruled by different kings. Between c. 550–750 CE, the Pushyabhuti dynasty ruled much of northwestern India, reaching its apogee under Harsha-Vardhana, the grandson... More
Rashtrakuta, Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara state formation, c. 750–950
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Rashtrakuta, Pala, Gurjara-Pratihara state formation, c. 750–950
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After the collapse of the Harsha-Vardhana dynasty in c. 750, the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties vied for domination of the Gangas (Ganges) valley and the sacred city of Kanauj. India rapidly decentralized, forming into regional kingdoms, with feudal structures. The north, briefly a lawless and leaderless area, became unified... More
Southeast Asia 1500
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Southeast Asia 1500
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During the 15th century, Muslim traders and itinerant Sufist mystics spread Islam widely through Southeast Asia. As the Hindu maritime empire of Majapahit collapsed (finally conquered by the Sultanate of Demak in 1526), a throng of Islamic sultanates filled the vacuum. The Bruneian Empire had outposts in the Phillippines and... More
The Collapse of Mycenae c. 1200 BCE
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The Collapse of Mycenae c. 1200 BCE
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Mycenaean civilization reached a peak in about 1300 BCE, but just a century later the palaces were abandoned and villages were burned. Traditional accounts theorized that the Mycenaean centres were destroyed by invading Dorian invaders, but archaeological evidence now seems to point to a range of factors, including: drought, harvest... More
The Delhi Sultanate c. 1100–1400
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The Delhi Sultanate c. 1100–1400
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Assassination was the favoured route to succession among the Delhi sultans, and perhaps the most original was perpetrated by Muhammad Tughluq (1325–51) who had his father crushed under a collapsing gazebo by stampeding elephants. His ways did not mend. Ibn Battuta, the Arab explorer, a (often terrified) visitor records ‘the... More