Kingdoms

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Angevin Possessions in France 1144–66
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Angevin Possessions in France 1144–66
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The Angevin Empire was ruled over by England’s King Henry II, of the House of Plantagenet. He was the son of the Empress Matilda, who had a claim to the English throne, and was married to the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V. After he died she married Geoffrey of Anjou,... More
Anglo-Saxon England and the Heptarchy
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Anglo-Saxon England and the Heptarchy
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Once Celtic Briton resistance had been largely subdued, Anglo-Saxon rule crystallized into seven main regional power bases, the Heptarchy, with Angles dominant in the Midlands and north, and Saxons in the south. An independent Jutish kingdom survived on the Isle of Wight until late in the 7th century. Borders were... More
Anglo-Saxon England and the Reconquest of Danelaw 900–19
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Anglo-Saxon England and the Reconquest of Danelaw 900–19
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Edward the Elder’s succession to the throne (899) was challenged by his cousin Aethelwold, who sought Danish support for his claim. A force sent by Edward to quell the rebellion was defeated near Huntingdon (902), but Aethelwold died during the battle, leaving Edward undisputed king. Edward then moved steadily to... More
Anglo-Saxon England and the Rise of Wessex
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Anglo-Saxon England and the Rise of Wessex
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In the 8th century, under kings Aethelbald and Offa, Mercia became the dominant Saxon Kingdom, extending their overlordship to the Channel coast. Egbert, who became king of Wessex in 802, maintained a fraught independence for two decades while the bellicose Mercian ruler Coenwulf focussed his aggression on Kent, East Anglia... More
Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms c. 800
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Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms c. 800
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The reign of the legendary King Offa of Mercia ended in 796. Although Mercia continued to be a dominant force in England for much of the next century, the kingdom of Wessex began to grow in power around the time of Offa’s death. Wessex achieved important victories against its main... More
Anglo-Saxons and Vikings 878–86
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Anglo-Saxons and Vikings 878–86
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By 878, the Viking invaders of Britain were suffering mission fatigue. The original Great Heathen Army had split, with a contingent under Halfdan raiding north as far as Scotland. With Northumbria at their mercy, many settled and began to farm the conquered land. The remaining forces under Guthrun harried Wessex... More
Arabia before the Muslim Conquests
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Arabia before the Muslim Conquests
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In the early 7th century, the Near East was dominated by an epic conflict between the Byzantines and Sasanians. After reaching the gates of Constantinople, the Sasanians were driven back by the Byzantine emperor, Heraclius. Against this backdrop, the Arabian peninsula was, before the explosive arrival of Islam, peripheral to... More
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 1204–66
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Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 1204–66
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In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks’ invasions of Anatolia displaced many Armenians from their heartland, with one refugee group finding sanctuary in the eastern Cilician mountains. This settlement became the nucleus of the future kingdom that, by the beginning of the 13th century, had become a substantial regional power,... More
Campaign of Piy c. 728 BCE
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Campaign of Piy c. 728 BCE
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The Nubian (Kushite) chieftain, Piy, advanced into Thebes where, having asserted control, he renamed himself Thutmose II, in homage to the 18th Dynasty pharaoh who had had converted the Kushites to the Cult of Amun. The incumbent pharaoh retreated to the Kingdom of Heraklepolis. Although Piy’s power was concentrated in... More
Campaigns of Kamose c. 1540
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Campaigns of Kamose c. 1540
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Kamose (ruled c. 1543–40 BCE), the final king of the 17th Dynasty, only reigned for three years before he died. In his final year, frustrated by his kingdom serving as a vassal to the occupying Hyksos, he crossed the border at Cusae and massacred the population of Nefrusy, his goal... More
Catalan-Aragonese Expansion to 1450
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Catalan-Aragonese Expansion to 1450
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After the union of Catalonia and Aragon by the marriage, then rule, of Queen Petronilla in 1137, the kingdom’s main phase of expansion came under James I, ‘the Conqueror’ (r. 1285–1327). He reconquered the Kingdom of Valencia and the Balearic Islands from the Moors, and annexed Bearn and Languedoc from... More
Celtic Britain and the Lost Lands 500–770 CE
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Celtic Britain and the Lost Lands 500–770 CE
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By the time the Romans left Britain in c. 406 CE, much of modern England and Wales was controlled by Celtic warlords, the first ‘Britons’. In c. 450 CE England was invaded by waves of Germanic peoples (Anglo-Saxons). They were unable to subdue the tribal regions of modern Cornwall and... More