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Showing 25–36 of 262 results

  • Byzantium and the East c. 840 CE

    Byzantium and the East c. 840 CE

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    Byzantium and the East c. 840 CE

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    Byzantium’s massive loss of territory to the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century had one substantial upside: its shrunken borders were much more defensible. The Byzantines adapted pragmatically to their reduced circumstances. The system of military and administrative divisions called themes was established by 700 CE and harkened back to... More
  • Byzantium in the Balkans 931–1018

    Byzantium in the Balkans 931–1018

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    Byzantium in the Balkans 931–1018

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    In the early 10th century, Simeon the Great established a Bulgarian Empire that spanned the Balkan peninsula. While officially at peace with the Byzantines, the Bulgars turned a blind eye to Magyar raids of Byzantine territory, while the Byzantines covertly supported a rebellion against Simeon that created an independent Serbian... More
  • Campaign of Piy c. 728 BCE

    Campaign of Piy c. 728 BCE

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    Campaign of Piy c. 728 BCE

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    The Nubian (Kushite) chieftain, Piy, advanced into Thebes where, having asserted control, he renamed himself Thutmose II, in homage to the 18th Dynasty pharaoh who had had converted the Kushites to the Cult of Amun. The incumbent pharaoh retreated to the Kingdom of Heraklepolis. Although Piy’s power was concentrated in... More
  • Campaigns of Darius 492–490 BCE

    Campaigns of Darius 492–490 BCE

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    Campaigns of Darius 492–490 BCE

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    The first Persian invasion of Greece ended with a decisive Greek victory. The invasion was ordered by Darius I in retaliation for the support given by Athens and Eretria to the Ionian cities during their Revolt. The first campaign was directed at Thrace and Macedonia, which became a client kingdom.... More
  • Campaigns of Kamose c. 1540

    Campaigns of Kamose c. 1540

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    Campaigns of Kamose c. 1540

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    Kamose (ruled c. 1543–40 BCE), the final king of the 17th Dynasty, only reigned for three years before he died. In his final year, frustrated by his kingdom serving as a vassal to the occupying Hyksos, he crossed the border at Cusae and massacred the population of Nefrusy, his goal... More
  • Central Europe 1789

    Central Europe 1789

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    Central Europe 1789

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    In the first partition of Poland in 1772 substantial areas of Polish territory had been annexed by Austria, Russia and Prussia, changing the balance of power in Central Europe. In 1789 the eruption of the French Revolution began a further wave of fundamental change within the traditional social hierarchy across... More
  • Central Europe 1806

    Central Europe 1806

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    Central Europe 1806

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    On 12 July 1806, after ten years of diplomatic wooing, sixteen German client states, which included Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, and Berg, signed the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine. The ‘Protector of the Confederation’ was the French Emperor, Napoleon I. The Confederation was happy to declare loyalty... More
  • Central Europe 1810

    Central Europe 1810

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    Central Europe 1810

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    By 1810, Napoleon Bonaparte’s domination of continental Europe seemed unchallengeable. Five enemy coalitions had been formed against him: each had been militarily outclassed and forced to sue for peace on humiliating terms. The War of the Third Coalition had ended in 1806 with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire... More
  • Central Europe 1812

    Central Europe 1812

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    Central Europe 1812

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    Before Napoleon’s attempted invasion of Russia in the winter of 1812, France was on its way towards domination of mainland Europe. A series of defeats suffered by successive European alliances at the hands of Napoleon had gradually reduced the strength and territories of France’s main continental rivals, Austria and Prussia.... More
  • Central Europe and Northern Italy 1797

    Central Europe and Northern Italy 1797

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    Central Europe and Northern Italy 1797

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    The French Republic secured victory in the War of the First Coalition in 1797, after it defeated an alliance of European powers, including Prussia and Austria as constituents of the Holy Roman Empire, Britain, Spain, the Netherlands and Portugal, who united against French expansionism and the threat of spreading revolution.... More
  • Central Europe c. 1720

    Central Europe c. 1720

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    Central Europe c. 1720

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    In 1720 the Habsburgs dominated Central Europe. The Treaty of The Hague (1720), which followed the defeat of the ambitious Philip V of Spain by the Quadruple Alliance of Britain, France, Austria and the Dutch Republic (Netherlands), consolidated the Habsburg position. Philip was forced to end his claims to lands... More
  • Central Europe in 1789

    Central Europe in 1789

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    Central Europe in 1789

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    In 1789 the Habsburg dynasty ruled the Holy Roman Empire, Austria and approximately a hundred German-speaking states in Central Europe, many of which were still ruled by bishops. The Empire also embraced Hungary, Bohemia and much of Italy. Conditions varied greatly in these multiple cities; some were ruled by corrupt... More