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Ghaznavid Empire c. 1000
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Ghaznavid Empire c. 1000
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The sacking of the temple of Somnath (1026), with its ‘56 golden pillars’ was perhaps the most lucrative of Mahmud of Ghazni’s (r. 997–1030) many looting raids into India. The Ghaznavid Empire had been founded by his father, Sebuktigin, a Turkic slave soldier for the Samanid dynasty, who seized a... More
Habsburg Dominions 1282–1815
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Habsburg Dominions 1282–1815
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The Habsburg dynasty originated in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland, and the first notable Habsburg is Rudolph, who was crowned emperor of Rome in 1273, and moved the family’s power base to Austria. A series of conquests, alliances and strategic marriages meant that Habsburg family territories had soon expanded into... More
Hülegü Khan’s Campaigns in Western Asia 1255–60
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Hülegü Khan’s Campaigns in Western Asia 1255–60
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In 1255 Kublai Khan appointed his brother, Hülegü Khan (c. 1218–1265), to launch a series of campaigns throughout western Asia. Beginning at Samarkand, Hülegü Khan destroyed the Alamut fortress of the Assassins, a militant Islamic sect, and went on to execute the last of the Abbasid caliphs. Historians believe that... More
Hungary under Matthew Corvinus 1477–90
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Hungary under Matthew Corvinus 1477–90
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Matthew Corvinus was the son of the renowned Hungarian general, John Hunyadi, who defeated the Ottoman conqueror of Constantinople, Murad II, at the Battle of Belgrade (1456). Elected Hungarian king by its parliament at just 14 (largely through papal influence, out of regard for his father’s achievements in protecting Christendom),... More
Iberian Campaigns 1807–14
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Iberian Campaigns 1807–14
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The Peninsular War began after Portugal refused to cease trading with Britain, going against Napoleon’s planned economic starvation of Britain. Initially Spain was allied with France, participating in the swift invasion of Portugal in November 1807, however Napoleon soon seized the Spanish crown and awarded it to his brother Joseph.... More
Imperial Ambitions c. 1800
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Imperial Ambitions c. 1800
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At the battle of Minorca (1756), the British Admiral John Byng’s excessive caution led to the loss of the island to the French. But his subsequent court-martial and execution – as Voltaire put it, ironically, ‘pour encourager les autres’ – was draconian. Duly encouraged, the surviving British admirals reeled off... More
Inca Empire 1438–1525
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Inca Empire 1438–1525
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The Inca Empire mushroomed from the city-state of Cuzco in the Peruvian Andes, under the ruler Pachacuti (1438–71). He organized their territory into four administrative regions: Chinchasuyu, Cuntisuyu, Antisuyu and Collasuyu, and masterminded a tried and tested method of territorial aggrandizement. This involved bribing the rulers of target states with... More
India 1805
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India 1805
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After the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–99) the British East India Company consolidated its strong position in South India by taking control of territory that was formerly part of the state of Mysore and its allies. After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 the Wodeyar family, who had ruled Mysore... More
India and the Empire of the White Huns 500 CE
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India and the Empire of the White Huns 500 CE
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It is unclear which ethnic group the White Huns belonged to, however a scroll dating from c.492 CE, translated in 2007, mentions that they practiced Buddhism and had Iranian names. Their name has appeared in Sanskrit as Sveta Hunas or Kiderites, and in Greek as Ephtalites or Hephthalites. The Hunnic... More
India and the Kushan Empire 100-200 CE
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India and the Kushan Empire 100-200 CE
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The Kushans originated, according to Chinese historical records, in the grasslands of Gansu in the northwest of China, where they were known as the Yuezhi and made up of a loose confederation five nomadic tribes. They are reputed to have spoken an Indo-European language of Iranian or Tocharian origin. They... More
India, Invasion and Regional Powers 1739–90
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India, Invasion and Regional Powers 1739–90
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At the start of the 18th century, the Mughals dominated the Indian subcontinent, but they were soon eclipsed by the Marathas, whose confederacy controlled northern India by the 1750s. In 1761 the Marathas themselves were defeated at the Battle of Panipat near Delhi by the Afghan ruler, Ahmed Khan Abdali,... More
Iran 1500–1800
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Iran 1500–1800
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The Safavids, under Shah Ismail I, burst from their homelands on the shores of the Caspian to conquer all the Timurid kingdoms of Iran in the first years of the 16th century. The empire reached its apogee under Shah Abbas I, who conquered territories to the west from the Ottomans,... More