Decline

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The Byzantine Empire  1265
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The Byzantine Empire  1265
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The Fourth Crusade (1202–04) instigated by Pope Innocent III recruited a considerable force of knights, mainly from France and Italy, who were to sail from Venice to Jerusalem. Due to financial difficulties they instead recaptured Hungarian Zara (Zadar) in Croatia for the Venetians and then sailed on to Consantinople, where... More
The Byzantine Empire and Bulgaria c. 1015
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The Byzantine Empire and Bulgaria c. 1015
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The Byzantine Empire, based on the territory of the former Eastern Roman Empire, adopted Christianity under its first Emperor Constantine I and reached its greatest territorial extent under Justinian I in the mid 6th century. In 681 CE Bulgar tribes moving into the northeastern Balkans, defeated the Byzantine army, led... More
The Byzantine Empire and the Ottoman Turks 1355
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The Byzantine Empire and the Ottoman Turks 1355
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Greatly fragmented and weakened by the Fourth Crusade of 1204 and its aftermath, the Byzantine Empire shrank considerably during the ensuing century. The Palaiologos dynasty, which reasserted Greek Orthodox control of Constantinople in 1261, concentrated on rebuilding the city and, to assuage the Latins, swore allegiance to Rome, but paid... More
The Conquest of the Aztec Empire 1518–19
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The Conquest of the Aztec Empire 1518–19
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In October 1518 Hernán Cortés led an expedition, funded by the governor of the Spanish colony on Cuba, Diego Velázquez, along the coast of Mexico in search of trade prospects. On his journey west, Cortés made contact with Gerónimo de Aguilar who had been living amongst the Mayans of the... More
The Empire of Hammurabi c. 1750 BCE
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The Empire of Hammurabi c. 1750 BCE
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After his father had created a Babylonian power base in central Mesopotamia by annexing Borsippa, Kish and Sippar, Hammurabi began his reign peaceably, establishing his famous legal code and consolidating his defences. After the Elamites invaded Eshnunna, Hammurabi allied with Larsa to annex their kingdom. Larsa’s contribution to the war... More
The End of the Ottoman Empire 30 October 1918
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The End of the Ottoman Empire 30 October 1918
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The Armistice of Mudros, marking the Ottoman Empire’s exit from World War I, was concluded between the British and Ottoman representatives on 30 October 1918. At the time, Ottoman forces were advancing in the Caucasus, but the British had taken Damascus and the Ottomans’ Bulgarian ally had sued for peace.... More
The Expansion of the Ottoman Empire 1328–1672
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The Expansion of the Ottoman Empire 1328–1672
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The death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566 marked the end of the Ottoman Empire’s classical age, in which it achieved its greatest territorial expansion and social stability, and ushered in the era of transformation. The victory of the Knights Hospitaller after the Great Siege of Malta in 1565 demonstrated... More
The Habsburg Empire 1618
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The Habsburg Empire 1618
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The Empire of Habsburg Spain was, by 1618, a magnificent edifice in desperate need of wholesale structural repair. The king, Philip III, was indolent, leaving affairs of state to his favourite, the Duke of Lerma. Notoriously corrupt, Lerma bankrupted the economy through extravagance, debasement of the coinage, and expulsion of... More
The Hittite Empire and Neighbouring States 1400–1100 BCE
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The Hittite Empire and Neighbouring States 1400–1100 BCE
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The Hittites were perhaps the most spectacular casualties of the Bronze Age collapse, which swept away the major powers of the Near East in the 12th century BCE. Its triggers are disputed, but this seems to have been a time of widespread population displacement, including the marauding, mysterious ‘Sea People’.... More
The Holy Roman Empire 1797–1806
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The Holy Roman Empire 1797–1806
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When in 1792 revolutionary France declared war on Habsburg Austria, the Holy Roman Empire’s days were numbered. Habsburg Austria’s emperor, Joseph II, was also the Holy Roman emperor. Prussia allied itself to Austria and a coalition of Britain, Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, Naples and Sicily. Although France was invaded on several... More
The Holy Roman Empire in Habsburg Europe c. 1600
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The Holy Roman Empire in Habsburg Europe c. 1600
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By 1600, the once great Holy Roman Empire had diminished into a medley of separate Germanic states presided over by many secular and ecclesiastical princes, some of whom were Lutheran reformists. Although allegiance was paid to the Catholic Habsburg emperor, heading a powerful dynasty that had occupied the Holy Roman... More
The Khazar Empire c. 700 CE
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The Khazar Empire c. 700 CE
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The Khazars were nomadic Asian warriors who conquered a huge swathe of territory to establish a large and powerful empire that extended from Central Asia to eastern Europe. The 7th-century Khazar ruler King Bulan decided to repudiate the pagan and idolatrous worship that beset his empire and led to widespread... More